Treatment with ascorbic acid and alpha-tocopherol modulates oxidative-stress markers in the spinal cord of rats with neuropathic pain

Vitamin E (vit. E) and vitamin C (vit. C) are antioxidants that inhibit nociception. The effect of these vitamins on oxidative-stress markers in the spinal cord of rats with chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve is unknown. This study investigated the effect of intraperitoneal administration of vit. E (15 mg·kg-1·day-1) and vit. C (30 mg·kg-1·day-1), given alone or in combination, on spinal cord oxidative-stress markers in CCI rats. Adult male Wistar rats weighing 200-250 g were divided equally into the following groups: Naive (rats did not undergo surgical manipulation); Sham (rats in which all surgical procedures involved in CCI were used except the ligature), and CCI (rats in which four ligatures were tied loosely around the right common sciatic nerve), which received injections of vitamins or vehicle (saline containing 1% Tween 80) for 3 or 10 days (n=6/each group). The vitamins prevented the reduction in total thiol content and the increase in superoxide-anion generation that were found in vehicle-treated CCI rats. While nitric-oxide metabolites increased in vehicle-treated CCI rats 3 days after surgery, these metabolites did not show significant changes in vitamin-treated CCI rats. In all rats, total antioxidant capacity and hydrogen-peroxide levels did not change significantly. Lipid hydroperoxides increased 25% only in vehicle-treated CCI rats. These changes may contribute to vit. C- and vit. E-induced antinociception, because scavenging reactive oxygen species seems to help normalize the spinal cord oxidative status altered by pain.

Effects of N-acetylcysteine on spinal cord oxidative stress biomarkers in rats with neuropathic pain

N-acetylcysteine (NAC) inhibits nociceptive transmission. This effect has been associated partly with its antioxidant properties. However, the effect of NAC on the levels of lipid hydroperoxides (a pro-oxidant marker), content of ascorbic acid (a key antioxidant molecule of nervous tissue) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) is unknown. Thus, our study assessed these parameters in the lumbosacral spinal cord of rats with chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve, one of the most commonly employed animal models of neuropathic pain. Thirty-six male Wistar rats weighing 200-300 g were equally divided into the following groups: Naive (rats did not undergo surgical manipulation); Sham (rats in which all surgical procedures involved in CCI were used except the ligature), and CCI (rats in which four ligatures were tied loosely around the right common sciatic nerve). All rats received intraperitoneal injections of NAC (150 mg·kg−1·day−1) or saline for 1, 3, or 7 days. Rats were killed 1, 3, and 7 days after surgery. NAC treatment prevented the CCI-induced increase in lipid hydroperoxide levels only at day 1, although the amount was higher than that found in naive rats. NAC treatment also prevented the CCI-induced increase in ascorbic acid content, which occurred at days 1, 3, and 7. No significant change was found in TAC with NAC treatment. The changes observed here may be related to the antinociceptive effect of NAC because modulation of oxidative-stress parameters seemed to help normalize the spinal cord oxidative status altered by pain.

N-acetylcysteine downregulates phosphorylated p-38 expression but does not reverse the increased superoxide anion levels in the spinal cord of rats with neuropathic pain

We determined the effect of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) on the expression of the phosphorylated p38 (p-p38) protein and superoxide anion generation (SAG), two important players in the processing of neuropathic pain, in the lumbosacral spinal cord of rats with chronic constriction injury (CCI)-induced neuropathic pain. The sciatic functional index (SFI) was also measured to assess the functional recovery post-nerve lesion. Thirty-six male Wistar rats were divided equally into the following groups: Naive (rats did not undergo surgical manipulation); Sham (rats in which all surgical procedures involved in CCI were used except the ligature), and CCI (rats in which four ligatures were tied loosely around the right common sciatic nerve), which received 2, 4, or 8 intraperitoneal injections of NAC (150 mg·kg-1·day-1) or saline beginning 4 h after CCI. Rats were sacrificed 1, 3, and 7 days after CCI. The SFI was measured on these days and the lumbosacral spinal cord was used for analysis of p-p38 expression and SAG. CCI induced a decrease in SFI as well as an increase in p-p38 expression and SAG in the spinal cord. The SFI showed a partial recovery at day 7 in saline-treated CCI rats, but recovery was improved in NAC-treated CCI rats. NAC induced a downregulation in p-p38 expression at all time-points evaluated, but did not reverse the increased SAG induced by CCI. Since p-p38 is a mediator in neuropathic pain and/or nerve regeneration, modulation of this protein may play a role in NAC-induced effects in CCI rats.

Effects of sciatic nerve transection on glucose uptake in the presence and absence of lactate in the frog dorsal root ganglia and spinal cord

Frogs have been used as an alternative model to study pain mechanisms because the simplicity of their nervous tissue and the phylogenetic aspect of this question. One of these models is the sciatic nerve transection (SNT), which mimics the clinical symptoms of phantom limb, a condition that arises in humans after amputation or transverse spinal lesions. In mammals, the SNT increases glucose metabolism in the central nervous system, and the lactate generated appears to serve as an energy source for nerve cells. An answerable question is whether there is elevated glucose uptake in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) after peripheral axotomy. As glucose is the major energy substrate for frog nervous tissue, and these animals accumulate lactic acid under some conditions, bullfrogs Lithobates catesbeianus were used to demonstrate the effect of SNT on DRG and spinal cord 1-[14C] 2-deoxy-D-glucose (14C-2-DG) uptake in the presence and absence of lactate. We also investigated the effect of this condition on the formation of 14CO2 from 14C-glucose and 14C-L-lactate, and plasmatic glucose and lactate levels. The 3-O-[14C] methyl-D-glucose (14C-3-OMG) uptake was used to demonstrate the steady-state tissue/medium glucose distribution ratio under these conditions. Three days after SNT, 14C-2-DG uptake increased, but 14C-3-OMG uptake remained steady. The increase in 14C-2-DG uptake was lower when lactate was added to the incubation medium. No change was found in glucose and lactate oxidation after SNT, but lactate and glucose levels in the blood were reduced. Thus, our results showed that SNT increased the glucose metabolism in the frog DRG and spinal cord. The effect of lactate on this uptake suggests that glucose is used in glycolytic pathways after SNT.

As rãs são usadas como modelos experimentais alternativos no estudo da nocicepção, tanto pela simplicidade do seu tecido nervoso como por permitirem uma abordagem filogenética sobre o tema. Um desses modelos é a secção do nervo isquiático (SNI), o qual simula os sintomas clínicos do membro fantasma, uma condição que ocorre nos humanos após amputação ou secção completa da medula espinal. Em mamíferos, a SNI aumenta o metabolismo da glicose no sistema nervoso central, e o lactato é uma fonte energética para as células nervosas. Porém é desconhecido se essa é a situação em gânglio da raiz dorsal (GRD). Como a glicose é o principal substrato energético para o tecido nervoso de rãs, e a concentração plasmática de lactato está aumentada nesses animais em distintas situações, a rã-touro Lithobates catesbeianus foi usada para demonstrar os efeitos da SNI sobre a captação de 1-[14C] 2-deoxi-D-glicose (14C-2-DG), na presença e ausência de lactato, em GRD e medula espinal. Foram demonstrados ainda os efeitos dessa condição experimental sobre a formação de 14CO2 a partir de 14C-glicose e 14C-L-lactato, e a concentração plasmática de glicose e lactato. A captação de 3-O-[14C] metil-D-glicose (14C-3-OMG) foi usada para demonstrar a relação tecido/meio estável da glicose nessas condições. A captação de 14C-2-DG aumentou três dias após a SNI, sem qualquer alteração na captação de 14C-3-OMG. O aumento foi reduzido quando o lactato foi acrescentado ao meio de incubação. A taxa de oxidação da glicose e do lactato não modificou após SNI, mas houve redução na concentração plasmática de glicose e lactato. Assim, a SNI aumenta o metabolismo da glicose no GRD e medula espinal de rãs. Os efeitos do lactato sobre essa captação sugerem o uso da glicose na via glicolítica após a SNI.

Effects of sciatic nerve transection on glucose uptake in the presence and absence of lactate in the frog dorsal root ganglia and spinal cord / Efeito da secção do nervo isquiático sobre a captação de glicose na presença e ausência de lactato em gânglio da raiz dorsal e medula espinhal de rãs

Frogs have been used as an alternative model to study pain mechanisms because the simplicity of their nervous tissue and the phylogenetic aspect of this question. One of these models is the sciatic nerve transection (SNT), which mimics the clinical symptoms of “phantom limb”, a condition that arises in humans after amputation or transverse spinal lesions. In mammals, the SNT increases glucose metabolism in the central nervous system, and the lactate generated appears to serve as an energy source for nerve cells. An answerable question is whether there is elevated glucose uptake in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) after peripheral axotomy. As glucose is the major energy substrate for frog nervous tissue, and these animals accumulate lactic acid under some conditions, bullfrogs Lithobates catesbeianus were used to demonstrate the effect of SNT on DRG and spinal cord 1-[14C] 2-deoxy-D-glucose (14C-2-DG) uptake in the presence and absence of lactate. We also investigated the effect of this condition on the formation of 14CO2 from 14C-glucose and 14C-L-lactate, and plasmatic glucose and lactate levels. The 3-O-[14C] methyl-D-glucose (14C-3-OMG) uptake was used to demonstrate the steady-state tissue/medium glucose distribution ratio under these conditions. Three days after SNT, 14C-2-DG uptake increased, but 14C-3-OMG uptake remained steady. The increase in 14C-2-DG uptake was lower when lactate was added to the incubation medium. No change was found in glucose and lactate oxidation after SNT, but lactate and glucose levels in the blood were reduced. Thus, our results showed that SNT increased the glucose metabolism in the frog DRG and spinal cord. The effect of lactate on this uptake suggests that glucose is used in glycolytic pathways after SNT.

As rãs são usadas como modelos experimentais alternativos no estudo da nocicepção, tanto pela simplicidade do seu tecido nervoso como por permitirem uma abordagem filogenética sobre o tema. Um desses modelos é a secção do nervo isquiático (SNI), o qual simula os sintomas clínicos do “membro fantasma”, uma condição que ocorre nos humanos após amputação ou secção completa da medula espinal. Em mamíferos, a SNI aumenta o metabolismo da glicose no sistema nervoso central, e o lactato é uma fonte energética para as células nervosas. Porém é desconhecido se essa é a situação em gânglio da raiz dorsal (GRD). Como a glicose é o principal substrato energético para o tecido nervoso de rãs, e a concentração plasmática de lactato está aumentada nesses animais em distintas situações, a rã-touro Lithobates catesbeianus foi usada para demonstrar os efeitos da SNI sobre a captação de 1-[14C] 2-deoxi-D-glicose (14C-2-DG), na presença e ausência de lactato, em GRD e medula espinal. Foram demonstrados ainda os efeitos dessa condição experimental sobre a formação de 14CO2 a partir de 14C-glicose e 14C-L-lactato, e a concentração plasmática de glicose e lactato. A captação de 3-O-[14C] metil-D-glicose (14C-3-OMG) foi usada para demonstrar a relação tecido/meio estável da glicose nessas condições. A captação de 14C-2-DG aumentou três dias após a SNI, sem qualquer alteração na captação de 14C-3-OMG. O aumento foi reduzido quando o lactato foi acrescentado ao meio de incubação. A taxa de oxidação da glicose e do lactato não modificou após SNI, mas houve redução na concentração plasmática de glicose e lactato. Assim, a SNI aumenta o metabolismo da glicose no GRD e medula espinal de rãs. Os efeitos do lactato sobre essa captação sugerem o uso da glicose na via glicolítica após a SNI.

Effects of sciatic nerve transection on ultrastructure, NADPH-diaphorase reaction and serotonin-, tyrosine hydroxylase-, c-Fos-, glucose transporter 1- and 3-like immunoreactivities in frog dorsal root ganglion

Frogs have been used as an alternative model to study pain mechanisms. Since we did not find any reports on the effects of sciatic nerve transection (SNT) on the ultrastructure and pattern of metabolic substances in frog dorsal root ganglion (DRG) cells, in the present study, 18 adult male frogs (Rana catesbeiana) were divided into three experimental groups: naive (frogs not subjected to surgical manipulation), sham (frogs in which all surgical procedures to expose the sciatic nerve were used except transection of the nerve), and SNT (frogs in which the sciatic nerve was exposed and transected). After 3 days, the bilateral DRG of the sciatic nerve was collected and used for transmission electron microscopy. Immunohistochemistry was used to detect reactivity for glucose transporter (Glut) types 1 and 3, tyrosine hydroxylase, serotonin and c-Fos, as well as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate diaphorase (NADPH-diaphorase). SNT induced more mitochondria with vacuolation in neurons, satellite glial cells (SGCs) with more cytoplasmic extensions emerging from cell bodies, as well as more ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum, intermediate filaments and mitochondria. c-Fos immunoreactivity was found in neuronal nuclei. More neurons and SGCs surrounded by tyrosine hydroxylase-like immunoreactivity were found. No change occurred in serotonin- and Glut1- and Glut3-like immunoreactivity. NADPH-diaphorase occurred in more neurons and SGCs. No sign of SGC proliferation was observed. Since the changes of frog DRG in response to nerve injury are similar to those of mammals, frogs should be a valid experimental model for the study of the effects of SNT, a condition that still has many unanswered questions.